Clinical Evidence for Microbiome-Based Strategies in Cancer Immunotherapy: A State-of-the-Art Review

The gut microbiome has emerged as a critical determinant of immune-checkpoint inhibitor (ICI) efficacy. A narrative review of 95 clinical studies (2015–2025) shows that patients with greater gut microbial diversity and relative enrichment of commensals such as Akkermansia, Ruminococcus, and other short-chain fatty acid producers experience longer progression-free and overall survival, particularly in melanoma and non-small-cell lung cancer. Broad-spectrum antibiotics given within 30 days of ICI initiation and over-the-counter mixed probiotics consistently correlate with poorer outcomes. Early phase I/II trials of responder-derived fecal microbiota transplantation in ICI-refractory melanoma achieved objective response rates of 20–40%, while pilot high-fiber or plant-forward dietary interventions improved immunologic surrogates such as CD8+ tumor infiltration. Machine-learning classifiers that integrate 16S or metagenomic profiles predict ICI response with an area under the ROC curve of 0.83–0.92. Methodological heterogeneity across sampling, sequencing, and clinical endpoints remains a barrier, underscoring the need for standardization and larger, well-powered trials.